Trypanosomiasis in Horses This is a blood and tissue parasite which also has the ability to invade the nervous system. High levels of parasitaemia are seen in horses, camels and dogs. Although it also affects other animals including livestock (cattle, sheep and goats) buffaloes and pigs. Trypanosomiasis is caused by a protozoan parasite Trypanosoma evansi and T. equiperdum  The disease is transmitted by tsetse flies inoculating parasite with its saliva into a horse. Other modes of transmission is sexual and also mechanical transmission by biting insects. Affected domestic animals act as reservoirs for human transmission. However the exact epidemiological role of the animal reservoir in the transmission of the disease is not yet well known. In horses the disease is characterized by fever, anemia, jaundice, loss of appetite, loss of weight, abortion, lethargy and in coordination. Other signs include edema (Swelling) of the limbs, abdomen, testicles and udder, paralysis of the hind limbs and finally death. The incubation period is 1 to 4 weeks and sometimes up to 8 weeks, after which the symptoms appear. Chronic form of the disease is seen when the horse is losing a lot of weight and neurological signs are as a result of the parasite travelling to the brain, where it causes an inflammatory response leading to encephalitis and cellular necrosis. Diagnosis is by demonstration of the parasite by blood smear and /or a parasite antigen or host antibody to the parasite is a definitive diagnosis. Though it is not possible to differentiate between T.evansi and T.equiperdum by light or electron microscopy, the later is rarely found in blood or tissues. Trypanosoma parasite stained with filed stain at The Andys Veterinary Hospital. Unless treated with trypanocidal drugs like diminazene aceturate, isometamidium chloride, quinapyramine, suramin, or cymelarsan, death is usually imminent. Diminazine aceturate is not effective in the long term treatment. However, l have experienced good results with isometamidium chloride in this part of the world.

Fading Puppy Syndrome This is a condition where puppies begin to deteriorate and die within a few days of birth. The causes of this condition are not well understood, however, inadequate availability of colostrum to puppies, little or lack of milk production from the bitch leading to hypoglycemia, low birth weight, congenital abnormalities, unhygienic and cold environment (chilling), and infectious diseases are known to cause this condition. The goal is to have puppies consume colostrums in the first 4 hours of life, or at least in the first 12 hours of life. Colostrums provide puppies with the necessary antibodies that are vital in fighting of infections. It is important to call your vet immediately the puppies are born to ascertain that the dam has enough milk and institute corrective measures if she does not have enough milk (Condition known as agalactia). The post natal environment for the puppies should be clean and temperatures should be about 27 to 32 degrees centigrade. Unsanitary birthing process leads to contamination of the umbilical cord resulting to septicemia. Poor health of the dam contributes to low birth weight. Risk of infection of E coli from the vagina of the bitch is a cause of fading puppy syndrome. Vaginal culture should be done before breeding and bitches positive of E coli should be treated. In addition, puppies born of bitches that are positive of E coli should be immediately treated with pediatric antibiotic suspensions. Canine herpes virus infection is one of the causes of fading puppy syndrome. This can be prevented by proper management of the kennel, bitch, dog shows, training and social activities. Round worms and hook worms may be contributing factor to fading puppy syndrome and it is important bitches have proper worm management and control. There is higher death rate of puppies born of caesarian section than those born natural. This could be attributed from stress from surgery to the dam and ultimately this affects the natural instinct of taking care of the puppies immediately they are born. Treatment of fading puppy syndrome will depend on the causes and therefore it is important to seek advice from your veterinarian before one breed their bitch.

Bladder stones in dogs and cats There are times when minerals that are usual in dogs and cats urine clump together to form stones, also called urinary calculi or bladder stones. The cause for formation of these stones is contributed by the pH of the urine, which is influenced by infection, diet and some medication. Genetics also play a role especially in some dogs physiological processes tend to produce precursors for stone formation than in other dogs. These stones can be anywhere between the kidneys, ureter, bladder and urethra. The symptoms of bladder stones vary from blood in the urine, constant licking of the genitals, inability to urinate, Straining to urinate, and increased frequency of urination, abdominal pain, vomiting and death. Diagnosis involves physical examination after obtaining proper history of the pet from the owner, x-rays, urine analysis that will determine infection, type of the crystal and the urine pH. Treatment involves medical management or surgery depending on the location and type of the stones. Prevention of bladder stones involve increasing consumption of water for your pet by placing multiple bowls of water in the garden and dietary changes through advise from your veterinary doctor, which will depend on the type of bladder stone your pet is having. If your pet has regular bladders stones, it is important to have regular examinations by your vet to ensure that they are not forming again.

Occurrence, treatment protocols, and outcomes of colic in horses within Nairobi County, Kenya Anderson Gitari, James Nguhiu, Vijay Varma and Eddy Mogoa : Department of Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya. Received: 16-05-2017, Accepted: 15-09-2017, Published online: 23-10-2017 doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2017.1255-1263 How to cite this article: Gitari A, Nguhiu J, Varma V, Mogoa E (2017) Occurrence, treatment protocols, and outcomes of colic in horses within Nairobi County, Kenya, Veterinary World, 10(10): 1255-1263. Abstract Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the treatments and their outcomes in horses with colic in Nairobi County, Kenya. Materials and Methods: This is a retrospective study to determine the occurrence, treatments, pain management, and outcomes of colic in horses in Nairobi County. Association between pain management protocols and the outcomes of colic with regard to recovery or death was also determined. Data collected from four equine practitioners were organized manually and given numerical codes as appropriate to facilitate entry into the computer. The coded data were entered into Microsoft Excel 2010 and exported to StatPlus pro 5.9.8 statistical package for analysis. Simple association tests were done between various factors and occurrence of colic. Results: The incidence of colic for the 11 years was 3.1%, which constituted 68.0% spasmodic colic, 27.8% impaction colic, and 4.2% displacement colic. Flunixin meglumine as a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) was used as the only pain management treatment in 85.3% of the cases, flunixin meglumine and butorphanol as NSAID-OPIOD combination in 6.4% of the cases, while buscopan as an antispasmodic was recorded in 5.9% of the cases mainly in spasmodic colic. Univariate analysis revealed simple association between various factors and the type of colic a horse was having. There was an association between the type of colic and the decision-making on the pain management protocol to use, whether single analgesic protocol (χ2 =22.5, p<0.001) or use of analgesic combinations (χ2 =18.3, p<0.001). The type of colic strongly influenced the decision for performing nasogastric intubation (χ2 =265, p<0.001), but performing nasogastric intubation was weakly (χ2 =4.9, p=0.03) associated with horse recovery from colic. Type of colic also strongly influenced the need for the use of metabolic stimulants, particularly vitamin B-complex (χ2 =99.3, p<0.001). Recovery or death of the horse from colic was strongly associated with the type of colic (χ2 =250, p<0.001). The possibility of recurrence of colic was weakly (χ2 =4.6, p=0.04) determined by the type of colic, a horse had. Multivariate logistic regression revealed that the main cause of death was intestinal displacement and the majority of the horses with intestinal displacement died (β-estimate 2.7, odds ratio=0.07, p=0.007) compared to horses that had impaction colic. Conclusion: The incidence of colic is 3.1%, and the most common type of colic is spasmodic followed by impaction. The most common pain management protocol for colic is NSAIDs, mainly flunixin meglumine, followed by flunixinbutorphanol combination. Surgery for horses with colic in Nairobi County is not commonly done due to impeding poor prognoses. The horse owners tend to prefer euthanasia for such cases.

Adopting a puppy, pitfalls to avoid. Acquiring a puppy from breeders especially for the new dog owners is normally an exciting experience. Clients visits to my surgery brimming with an array of questions that range from vaccinations, diet, and training to general care of puppy. It is quite responsible for new pet owners to visit their veterinarian for advice as this will help to avert a number of preventable diseases like parvo virus, canine disptemper, and zoonotic diseases, just to mention a few, like rabies, leptospirosis , ring worms. Parvovirus which is an extremely contagious disease is passed mostly from fecal contamination from other dogs, especially the unvaccinated. It affects puppies mostly from the age of 8 weeks to 1 year; some breeds like Rottweiler are more susceptible than others.  Most, if not all of the unvaccinated puppies that get parvovirus die. Therefore proper history of the vaccination of the dam and puppies is important to avoid this virus. Leptospirosis is transmitted from contaminated water and urine. The disease is zoonotic and affects kidneys and liver both in dogs and human. My colleague, Andrew who is doing PhD on a leptospirosis study in one of the informal settlements in Kenya, indicated that the disease is frequently misdiagnosed because of its clinical presentation and lack of equipped laboratories. Canine distemper which appears as a respiratory infection from wheezing and ocular discharge causes pneumonia and brain damage. Some puppies can recover from the virus after treatment but will remain latent carriers and disease may flare up at later stages in their lives. Brain damage may cause seizures in their adult life. Hook worms are common intestinal parasites that cause diarrhea, intestinal blockage and unthrifty or poor weight gain. Puppies get infested via fecal contamination, from the dam via breast milk or even to unborn puppies while in-utero. Affected puppies are susceptible to opportunist infections and struggle to remain healthy in life. Skin diseases like mange and fungal infections can easily be passed from dam to the puppy, and this can also be an indicator of immunocompromising conditions. In addition it is expensive to treat these conditions and some of the puppies may not make full recovery. Some of these conditions may be missed by the new puppy owners when adopting a puppy and it is imperative to make a visit to your veterinarian for vaccination and professional guidance on care for your puppy.